Radiation and radiation protection

The University Director is responsible for all work with radiation sources at the University of Bergen. The University Director has delegated the task of the practical implementation of the radiation protection efforts to the Central Radiation Protection Coordinator.

The University Director:

• Is responsible for the preparation of guidelines for radiation protection and the use of radiation sources.
• In cooperation with the central radiation protection coordinator, is responsible for following up the annual report and other requirements from the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority.
• In cooperation with the central radiation protection coordinator, must keep track of all radiation sources, as well as keeping track of all the laboratories where radiation sources are being used.
• Can give a written warning or refuse a project or a user the right to use radiation sources if the work is undertaken in violation of applicable laws and regulations.

Faculty Director:

• Must, in collaboration with the central radiation control coordinator, keep track of the radiation sources at the faculty.
• Can give a written warning or refuse a project or a user the right to use radiation sources if the work is undertaken in violation of applicable laws and regulations.

The Department Head/Department Manager/Centre Director must:

• appoint a local radiation protection coordinator and ensure the coordinator has the necessary expertise.
• ensure a local contingency plan is prepared in case of accidents and undesired incidents with radiation sources.
• ensure that a risk assessment is implemented prior to starting work with radiation sources.
• ensure pregnant employees are not exposed to more than 1 mSv to the foetus.

The central radiation protection coordinator must:

• meet the requirements for professional expertise as required by laws, regulations and guidelines.
• have good knowledge about laws and regulations.
• administer UiB's systematic work on radiation protection.
• ensure that UiB has the necessary approval for work with radiation sources.
• perform an annual control of the units at UiB that use radiation sources.
• be the liaison between the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority and UiB and submit an annual report on the radiation protection work at UiB.
• keep a summary of UiB's radiation sources and laboratories where radiation sources are used.
• ensure that laboratories where radiation sources are in use follow the requirement specification provided in the Radiation Protection Regulations and Guideline 2.
• be able to supervise employees regarding safe handling of radiation sources as well as the use of protective and safety equipment.
• perform or ensure measurements are performed including assessments to determine radiation doses.
• Has the authority, on behalf of the university director, to stop any work that is in violation of applicable laws and regulations.

The local radiation protection coordinator must:

• administer the local radiation protection work.
• be familiar with the laws and regulations and have completed a three day course and passed the course test in radiation protection.
• be able to train staff, students and guests in the safe use of radiation sources including use of protective equipment and waste management.
• keep a summary of the unit’s radiation sources, including procurement, use, handling and disposal.
• keep a summary of all the laboratories where radiation sources are in use and ensure these are properly marked.
• ensure that local procedures are prepared for working with radiation sources.
• annually report procurement, use and waste management to the central radiation control coordinator.
• participate in risk assessments for working with radiation protection.
• notify all non-conformances concerning use of radiation sources in the line and to the central radiation protection coordinator.

The Technical Supervisor/Project Manager must:

• assess whether it is necessary to use radiation sources.
• perform a risk assessment prior to starting new work or where a new radiation source is taken into use.
• inform the local radiation protection coordinator about activities where radiation sources are being used.
• ensure all relevant users are given adequate training.

• have completed a three day course and passed the course test in radiation protection.

• follow the laws, regulations and internal routines applicable at any given time.

The room supervisor must:

• have knowledge of radiation sources in use at the laboratory.
• ensure that the work is performed in a proper manner.
• ensure that necessary protective equipment is available.
• have completed a one-day course in radiation protection.

Users must:

• as a minimum, complete e-learning course in radiation and be given internal training by the local radiation protection coordinator prior to starting the work.
• become familiar with risk assessments that have been performed or perform a risk assessment.
• become familiar with the local guidelines, procedures and routines.
• use suitable protective equipment where this must be used.
• ensure that the handling of radiation sources is performed in such a way that there is no risk to personal health or the health of others, security, the working environment or external environment.
• in the event of an accident, notify the technical supervisor/project manager and the local radiation control coordinator.

Other conditions:

• Lower level degree students must not handle open radiation sources without prior agreement with the local radiation protection coordinator.
• Pregnant users, once the pregnancy becomes known and for as long as the pregnancy lasts, must not be exposed to more than 1 mSv to the foetus. At UiB, this will in practice mean that pregnant women shall not perform any work with open radioactive sources. Read more about pregnancy and radiation.
• If the risk assessment of the work routine shows that users may be exposed to more than 6 mSv in one year, caused by the type of work or due to an accident, the user must undergo a health examination before using ionising radiation. Read more about Health check for working with ionising radiation.

Notify in UiB's digital HSE non-conformities system in UiBHelp.

In addition, we are required to report accidents and abnormal incidents to the Norwegian Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (DSA). Written notification must be sent from the company to the Directorate as soon as possible and no later than within 3 working days.

It is the individual unit that must notify of the accident / incident. The unit must also inform the Central Radiation Protection Coordinator.

• Incidents that cause or could have caused unwanted exposure of an employee, patient or other person significantly beyond normal levels, or unexpected radiation damage.
• Loss, theft or sabotage of radiation sources.
• Unwanted release of radioactive substances into the environment.
• Incidents that may cause radiation to the general public so that the individual may be exposed to an effective dose above 0.25 mSv / year.
• Technical failure of radiation protection significance.
• Significant deviation from intentionally absorbed dose or activity to exposed tissue in patient.
• Severe radioactive contamination of the business area or equipment.
• Finds of ownerless radiation sources.

At UiB, radiation sources are used for both research and teaching. Everyone who uses radiation sources is obliged to familiarize themselves with the UiB's guidelines for radiation protection and the use of radiation at UiB.In units where radiation sources are used, the line manager shall appoint a local radiation protection coordinator and work involving radiation sources to be risk assessed. Line manager in collaboration with local radiation protection coordinator shall ensure that employees who are to use radiation sources have adequate training and ensure that the correct protective equipment is available.

Employees working with ionising radiation are required to register their work in an exposure register. At UiB we use the exposure register in the chemical inventory (se link on the HSE-gateway).

Before you start working with radiation sources you need to have both teoretical and practical training. You will find information about different courses here.

Any use of and work with radiation shall be based on the following basic principle:

• All work with radioactive sources must be well justified. This means that the benefit from the use of radiation must be greater than the risk.
• Work with radioactive sources should follow the ALARA principle (As Low As Reasonably Achievable).
• Any use of radiation must be optimised.
• The dose limits provided in the Radiation Protection Regulations and in Appendix 2 of the regulation must not be exceeded.

The annual dose limit is 20 mSv for occupational exposure and for others (the population in general) the dose limit is 1 mSv.  The dose limit must never be exceeded. In the event that occupational exposure may mean doses exceeding 6 mSV per year, the individual must undergo regular health checks.

• Act on Radiation Protection and Use of Radiation
• Regulations on Radiation Protection and Use of Radiation (Radiation Protection Regulations)
• Regulations concerining the Performance of Work
• Regulations relating to systematic health, environment and safety work in enterprises (Internal Control Regulations)

The Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority (NRPA) is the competent national authority in the area of radiation protection and nuclear safety in Norway. The Radiation Protection Authority is organized under the ministry of Health and Care Services. It provides assistance to all ministries on matters dealing with radiation, radiation protection and nuclear safety.

• NRPA
• Guide 1: Guidance on industrial radiography (NO)
• Guide 2: The use of open radioactive sources in the laboratory (NO)
• Guide 5: Guidance for the medical use of X-ray and MRI apparatus subject to approval (NO)
• Guide 7: Guidelines for the safe use of short-wave ultraviolet radiation (UVC) (NO)
• Guide 9: Guidelines for industrial sources (NO) 
• Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority

• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
• International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
• International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP)

Units that plan to use or handle radiation sources must prepare a written HSE risk assessment related to radiation use. New activities shall not be initiated until a risk assessment has been carried out and the necessary preventive measures have been implemented.

The risk assessment shall provide employees and students with the necessary information about the risks associated with working with radiation sources.

When risk assessment of a single work task and / or activity (eg a procedure or method), we recommend Safe Job Analysis (SJA).

Important factors when assessing risk:

• Is the project within the approvals for radiation use that UiB has
• Are there other methods that do not involve the use of radiation sources (substitution obligation)
• Does the use of radiation sources place special demands on the design of the premises such as ventilation, fume cupboards or shielding of walls, floors and ceilings
• Is there a need for physical security mechanisms such as interlock on doors, warning lights, etc.
• How to dispose of radiation sources
• It requires training in the use of radiation sources
• Are there special requirements in relation to the transport of the radiation sources
• The legislation requires targeted health examinations

For risk assessment of one specific radiation source, we recommend the use of a simple exposure matrix. It can be attached to the HSE risk assessment or the Safe Job Analysis.

Here you can read more about different risk assessment methods related to HSE and emergency preparedness.

• Prior to starting work with radiation sources you must, in accordance with the substitution obligation, find out if it is possible to carry out the work using a non-radioactive source.
• The choice of location depends on the energy of the radiation source. Low energy radiation sources, such as H-3 and C-14, can be worked on in an approved area in a regular laboratory. Radiation sources with a higher energy require facilities that have been further adapted. Classification and labelling of isotope laboratories must follow the requirement specifications as required by law and regulations, when considering the quantities that can be used for each activity and the general requirements for the laboratories.
• A risk assessment must be carried out prior to starting any work with radiation sources.
• Everyone working with radioactive sources must have undergone suitable training. As a minimum prior to start-up, local training at the laboratory must have been implemented, and as soon as possible following the start-up a course in radiation protection must be implemented:
  • A three-day course with a pass in the course test for permanent employees, PhD’s, project employees and students who will be using radioactive sources on a regular basis. In this case, a regular basis means monthly or more often.
  • One-day courses in radiation protection for permanent employees, PhD’s, project employees and students who will be using radiation sources for a short period.
• Prior to working with radiation sources, it is important to consider how one is going to work.
  • What distance should there be to the source.
  • How much time can you spend working with the source.
  • What type of shielding must be used.
  • How do you become exposed and what organs can be vulnerable.
• Make sure that correct and necessary protective equipment is available.
  • Safety glasses
  • Gloves, feel free to use two pairs.
  • Laboratory coat.
  • Shielding of lead or plexiglass.
  • Use plastic covered backing sheet.
  • Use disposable equipment as much as possible.
    • Glass equipment must always be washed by the user. The first wash water must be treated as radioactive waste.
• Laboratory equipment such as the automatic pipettes regularly used for radioactive substances should be reserved for that work alone.
• Specimens and specimen tubes must be labelled using the ionising hazard trefoil.  

• It is prohibited to eat and drink in the laboratory.
• Any spillage must be mopped up immediately.
• The workbench must be tidied after work has finished.
• Implement two control measurements:
  • Use a Geiger Müller counter if you have used a high energetic source of radiation.
  • Use a wipe test if the radiation source has low energy.
• All waste must be treated prudently.
  • Waste that can achieve background radiation within one year stands to decay and disposed of as problematic waste / hazardous waste.
  • Waste that does not achieve background radiation within one year must be delivered to an approved waste reception. Radioactive waste must be delivered at least once a year.

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Exposure to UV radiation can cause damage to the skin and eyes.

Adapted protective equipment must be available to everyone who has to stay in areas where they may be exposed to UV radiation. This could be eye and face protection (goggles/visor), long protective gloves and long sleeved lab coat.

More detailed work instructions for using UV light can be found here.

You can find a poster that can be printed out and hung up where UV equipment is used here.

Procedure for performing a wipe test:

• Use a moist filter paper (5x5 cm or similar) and wipe off the bench, equipment, handles, floors, etc. One filter paper for each area you are wiping off.
• Take a damp filter paper and wipe off an area that has not been used for radioactive work (blank sample).
• Place the filter papers in the scintillation glass and fill with a scintillation liquid.
• Count the samples in a scintillation counter (or a gamma counter)
• The work area is ready for use if the count from the wipe test is of the same order of magnitude as the blank sample. If the counts are higher than the blank sample, the work area must be washed again and a new wipe test must be completed. This is repeated until the counts are equal to the blank sample.
• The results from the wipe test must be stored.

When working with more energy-rich radiation sources such as P-32, the use of Geiger Müller will be sufficient.

• In the event of contamination of individuals’ skin or clothing:
  • Wash thoroughly, if necessary take a shower.
  • Change soiled clothing.
  • If the radioactive source has entered the body, consult a doctor.
• Provide information to others regarding the accident.
• Use necessary protective equipment:
  • Lab coat.
  • Shoe covers.
  • Gloves.
• Find the necessary equipment.
  • Paper towels.
  • Soap.
  • Waste bin.
  • Measuring equipment.
• Put paper towels on the spillage. If both the floor and bench are contaminated, start with the floor.
• Wipe from the outer edge towards the centre. Change paper often.
• Use soap and water if necessary.
• Check the result with the measuring equipment (Geiger Müller counter or using a wipe test).
• Wash until the measurements correspond to the background measurements.
• Document the measurement results.
• Report the non-conformance in the electronic HSE non-conformance system in UiBHelp. and inform the local radiation protection coordinator and the line manager (the immediate superior).
• In addition, we are required to report accidents and abnormal incidents to the Norwegian Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (DSA).Written notification must be sent from the company to the Directorate as soon as possible and no later than within 3 working days.

Waste from ionising radiation sources must be disposed of correctly

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Ionizing radiation is radiation that has sufficient energy, in the form of particles or electromagnetic radiation, to knock out electrons from atoms and / or molecules that are hit, such that an ion is formed in biological material.

In order to support this, radiation must have energy of 12.6 eV (electron volts), corresponding to a wavelength of 100 nm or shorter. In the human body, this radiation will have high enough energy to break the chemical bonds in the genetic material in cells and thus damage it.

There are two main types of ionizing radiation:

• Particle Radiation-α-, β-, neutron and proton radiation.
• Electromagnetic radiation (photos radiation) - X-ray and γ-radiation.

Knowledge and good working procedures and routines are essential precondition for working safely with ionizing radiation sources. Everyone working with ionizing radiation shall be registered in the exposure register (see link to chemical inventory at the HSE-gateway).

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Non-ionising radiation is radiation with an energy below 12.6 eV, and this radiation does not have enough energy to break chemical bonds in biological materials.

Non-ionising radiation is divided into two main areas - optical radiation and electromagnetic fields. Optical radiation covers infrared radiation, visible light, blue light and ultraviolet radiation. Electromagnetic fields covers static fields up to radio frequency fields (radio waves), including radio transmitters, mobile phones, microwave ovens, computer screens and fields from power lines.

The health hazards of working with artificial optical radiation and electromagnetic fields must be risk assessed prior to starting work.

Optical radiation has a short range in biological tissue, and the main effect is thermal heating of the tissue. Health damage to the skin and damage to the cornea can occur. Especially when working with laser sources and with a lot of blue light (used for hardening dental materials in fillings), precautionary measures must be taken. Eye protection suitable for laser and blue light is an important measure to prevent this, and the requirement in the regulation is that safety glasses must be constructed and designed to prevent acute or chronic effects of non-ionising radiation to the eyes.

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Visible light, radio waves and X-rays are examples of electromagnetic radiation (EMR). EMR is energy transmitted through empty space or through matter as electromagnetic waves.

When an electrical charge changes its energy condition it leads to moving waves. These are waves of different frequency and wavelength dependent on the origin.

In the figure above, both the frequency and wavelength are included, and the correlation between these is given in the equation c = λ x f, where c is the speed of light, λ is wavelength and f is frequency.

Waves with a long wavelength spread well beyond their surroundings. Radio waves are used to transmit wireless signals to TVs, radios and mobile phones through the air.

Microwaves are less widespread and are used where the transmitter and the receiver are closer to each other. In this spectrum you will, for example, find radar and microwave ovens.

Physical bodies with temperatures around room temperature and above will emit radiation in the infrared area. This is radiation in the form of heat. Different cameras and surveillance equipment such as motion detectors can react to infrared radiation.

Visible light has a whole spectrum of colours. From the colour red with the longest wavelength (and thus least energy) to the colour violet which has the shortest wavelength (and the highest energy):

X-rays are energy rich radiation and can penetrate soft tissue. This type of radiation does not penetrate bones, and is therefore very suitable for photographing the skeleton of humans and animals.

Gamma radiation is very energy rich and penetrates most solid materials. Gamma rays are ionising radiation and can therefore destroy molecules and connections in atoms and cause damage to tissues.